Language: Levels E, M, D, and A Study Guide for the TABE Test

Conventions of Standard English: Part 3

Capitalization

Remember that every sentence begins with a capital letter. If you are just beginning a written piece, use a capital letter. If you are in the middle of writing and you use a period (.) or other end mark, the letter right after it should be a capital.

I walked to the park. It was sunny. (correct)

i walked to the park. it was sunny. (incorrect)

Do you know what’s wrong with Josh? He left early. (correct)

Do you know what’s wrong with Josh? he left early. (incorrect)

Proper nouns should also begin with a capital letter. There are many different types of proper nouns, such as names of people, company names, holidays, historical eras, city names, etc. Complete lists of the many types of proper nouns can be found online.

Capitalize title abbreviations such as Mrs., Dr., etc. Full titles should be capitalized only if used as a proper noun:

Professor Jones was late to class.

The professor was late to class.

Hi, Professor!

Each sentence is correct. Titles like professor, doctor, and president should be capitalized only when they are used as part of someone’s name.

Punctuation

Punctuation includes all those little marks we add to the words in sentences that make the sentence easier to read and understand. If these marks are misplaced, or not used at all, it can be difficult to achieve effective communication.

Sentence End Marks

Every sentence must end with a punctuation mark. The simplest way to look at it is this:

If you are making a statement, end the sentence with a period (.).
If you are conveying excitement, loud volume, or a strong feeling, use an exclamation mark (!).
If you are asking a question, end with a question mark (?).

I’m a graphic designer.
I love graphic design!
Do you know any graphic designers?

Commas

Commas (,) are generally used to separate grammatical units and to create brief pauses in sentences. These pauses help the writer to avoid a run-on sentence and help the reader understand the text. When in doubt about whether to use a comma, try reading the sentence out loud to see if there is a natural pause. If so, a comma is more than likely necessary.

After I ran the entire marathon I took a long shower. (incorrect)

After I ran the entire marathon, I took a long shower. (correct)

When writing a sentence, use a comma and a conjunction to separate two independent clauses in a compound sentence.

Jim put on his shoes, and he walked to the grocery store.

Commas should also be used to separate three or more items in a list. The comma before the words and or or is known as the Oxford comma.

I love dogs, cats, and rabbits.

There is some disagreement over whether or not the Oxford comma (the comma before and or or) is necessary, but it is generally safer to use it.

When using multiple adjectives to describe a noun, a comma is only necessary if the adjectives are coordinating. (See discussion of this term under “Adjectives” in a previous section of this study guide.) So:

She saw a fluffy, white rabbit. (coordinating adjectives: use a comma)

The five small children ran all around the store. (not coordinating adjectives: no comma)

There are several other uses of commas of which you should be aware:

A comma is used to close a letter. It comes right after a closing word, such as sincerely or best regards.
A comma is used to separate parts of addresses:

We live at 122 Coconut Street, Bookerville, IL.

Use a comma to separate parts of dates in a sentence:

She was born on September 29, 1955, in Aurora, Wisconsin.

Use a comma after introductory prepositional phrases:

After the school bell rang, the students were released.

Also use a comma before and after a nonrestrictive clause (discussed previously):

The man on the podium, who was also her husband, waved at Diana.

Apostrophes

The apostrophe (’) is generally used in two cases: to show possession and to create a contraction.

This is John’s book.

John can’t find his book.

In the first sentence, the apostrophe shows that the book belongs to John. In the second sentence, the apostrophe shortens the word cannot into can’t.

For a singular noun, simply adding an apostrophe + s will make the word possessive.

That kid’s shoe is red.

For a plural noun ending in s, the apostrophe will go after the s.

Those kids’ shoes are red.

For plural nouns not ending in s, you should follow the same rule as with singular nouns and simply add an apostrophe + s.

The men’s camping trip is next weekend.

For singular nouns ending in s, add the apostrophe + s in most cases, especially where the extra syllable of es is pronounced.

It was Thomas’s bike.

The Jones’s house is up the street.

The exception to the apostrophe rule is its. If an apostrophe is used in it’s, it can only mean a contraction (it is or it has). The possessive form of its does not use an apostrophe.

Semicolons and Colons

A semicolon (;) should be used to separate two independent clauses that are closely related in subject. Never use a semicolon with a conjunction (e.g., and, but, or).

The eagle soared overhead; his wingspan was magnificent to behold.

A colon (:) can be used a couple of different ways. Using a colon before a list of items basically means that examples will follow.

On the first day of school, you are required to bring several items: a pencil, a ruler, a calculator, and an eraser.

A colon can also be used to separate two independent clauses. Unlike the semicolon, you can only use a colon to separate these clauses if the second one explains or expounds upon the first.

Justice had been served: the cheating boy was expelled.

Hyphens

Hyphens (-) are used to create compound words or to link words together in a sentence to show the reader that the words are closely related to each other. They are also added for clarity when the words would cause confusion without a hyphen. Never add spaces around a hyphen.

The low-income neighborhood was next door to the business park.

(This is correct because the words “low” and “income” are linked in this sentence.)

The nurse lost the form so he had to get a new one and re-sign.

(This is correct because without the hyphen, the word “resign” would cause confusion. Is the nurse signing the form again, or is he leaving his job?)

I love the high - end stores downtown.

(This is incorrect because you should never add spaces around a hyphen.)

There are many special rules for hyphens, and there are countless lists available online. Study a few of them to become familiar with the lesser-known rules. When in doubt, look it up!

Parentheses

Parentheses ( ) and brackets [ ] are used to enclose words that are considered “extra” information. They may clarify what was already said, or they may just enclose another thought. Either way, if the words are inside parentheses or brackets, it means they are considered less important than the other phrases they accompany.

I need to walk my dog (he’s very energetic), but I am too tired from work.

In this sentence, the phrase in the parentheses gives extra information on the topic, but it’s not as important as the other phrases.

The words inside the parentheses are not included in the subject. Make sure that your verb-tense agreement is based on the subject outside of the parentheses.

Sarah (along with the other students) was excited for prom. (correct)

Sarah (along with the other students) were excited for prom. (incorrect)

To check, read the sentence without the content in the parentheses and make sure things sound correct.

Remember that when using parentheses, the end sentence mark should go on the inside if a complete statement was made. If the words inside the parentheses are not a complete thought, then the end mark should go on the outside of the parentheses.

The dogs were very hungry. (They were thirsty too.)
The dogs were very hungry (and thirsty).

Parentheses are far more commonly used than brackets because brackets are really intended for use within quoted materials. Brackets can be used to indicate that something about the quote has been changed or modified, to indicate acknowledgment of a misspelling or misused word in a quotation, or to indicate when the quote is interrupted by an outside source. Here are some examples of what that looks like:

Mary posted in her story, ‘I love it when [S]heila bakes!’”

The brackets indicate that the “s” in Sheila’s name was previously not capitalized, and that it was changed from the original.

The text read, ‘there [sic] running late but will be there in 10!’”

The brackets acknowledge that the wrong *there is used.*

In his famous 1962 speech, John F. Kennedy notes, “We choose to go to the Moon… and do the other things [that’s rather vague wording for a president to use!], not because they are easy, but because they are hard…”

The brackets allow the writer to interject a thought about the quoted material.

Quotation Marks

Use quotation marks (“ ”) to state exactly what someone said. If you are summarizing what the person said, do not use quotations.

“I’m very impressed with the new teacher,” said the principal. (correct)

The principal “likes the new teacher.” (incorrect)

Quotation marks can also be used around unusual words or words being used in an unusual way.

My daughter often waits too long to eat and becomes “hangry”, a term meaning you are so hungry you get angry.

After my son “cleaned” his room, I still had to make the bed and vacuum.

Note that when quotation marks are used within other quotation marks, you use the single quotation marks (‘ ’).

“The parents object to the ‘reward’ of additional work provided to their children,” reported the principal.

When using quotation marks, periods (.) and commas (,) should usually go on the inside of them.

“I hate broccoli,” the child said to his mother.

According to the captain, “The sea is rather rough today.”

Exclamation and question marks go on the inside of the quotation marks if they are part of the sentence being quoted.

“Can I go to the circus?” asked Johnny.

What’s a “circus”?

I finally finished “Moby Dick”!

Ellipses

Ellipses (…) are the three dots you sometimes see in a text. They indicate a pause or identify that text has been omitted.

Mark asked Cindy to marry him. She said…yes.

“Well…,” began Tony, “Let me tell you about how we first met.”

In the preface to his work, The Souls of Black Folk, W. E. B. Du Bois asks his readers to “receive my little book in all charity…and [seek] the grain of truth hidden here.”

Italics

While italics are not a separate punctuation mark, they are used in writing for several purposes. Sometimes, we use italics to emphasize words, as in:

She said that she would not attend the wedding.

Italics are also used for book titles:

I haven’t read Moby Dick in quite a while.

Spelling

As noted earlier, usage is important for clarity of meaning. Part of usage is spelling words correctly. A misspelled word can confuse the reader and can potentially change the entire meaning of a sentence. Consider these sentences:

To be sure he had room for it, Derek ate desert first.

The camel train traveled along the sandy dunes of the dessert for three days.

One s changes the word and affects the whole meaning of the sentence. In the first sentence, Derek didn’t eat a sparsely vegetated, arid land. He likely ate a piece of yummy pie, a slice of cake, or a bowl of ice cream because dessert is a sweet treat enjoyed after a meal. Likewise, the camel train wasn’t wading through puddles of hot fudge or cookie crumbles, they were in that dry, barren landscape with sand dunes—a desert.

Spelling matters, and there are a lot of commonly misspelled words out there. Use the internet to explore websites of frequently misspelled words to learn some tricks and tips to help you correctly spell some of the more commonly confusing ones.

Spelling Plural Nouns

Most of the time, nouns are made plural by adding an -s or -es to the end of a word. However, there are exceptions. When a noun ends in -y, change the ending to -ies after a consonant (or add -s after a vowel); if it ends in -f or -fe, change the ending to -ves to make the noun plural.

eraser → erasers

friend → friends

fox → foxes

sandwich → sandwiches

toy → toys

story → stories

life → lives

wolf → wolves

Some nouns are the same whether they are singular or plural, and some change entirely when they become plural.

fish → fish

sheep → sheep

child → children

person → people

Conduct an internet search for more examples of irregular plural nouns.