# How to Prepare for the Reduction of Risk Potential Questions on the NCLEX-PN® Test

## General Information

Of course, you’ll want to do everything you can to reduce risk to the patient, other co-workers, and yourself during your work as an LPN. Here’s an outline of the major topics covered in this area on the NCLEX-PN® test. It includes things like spotting irregularities in lab reports and watching for complications after procedures. About 9% to 15% of the questions on the test concern this area of nursing, so if you’re still unsure about any of it, be sure to seek additional information sources.

# Obtaining and Using Data

## Vital Signs

One of the most basic data elements for patient care are the patient’s vital signs. These normally include pulse, blood pressure, and pulse oximetry, at a minimum.

### Check and Monitor

The LPN will frequently check and monitor a patient’s vital signs. The frequency for checking vital signs is dependent on the patient’s current status. For example, a stable patient may only need one set of vitals during an 8-hour shift. However, a more critical patient may have a requirement for collecting a set of vital signs every 15 minutes.

### Compare

When vital signs are collected, the LPN should determine if they are in-range or out-of-range for the patient’s age. For example, a systolic blood pressure reading over 120 mmHg is typically considered high. However, more important than comparison to the standard range is comparison to the patient’s baseline. For example, if the patient’s blood pressure has consistently been over 120 mmHg with no symptoms, this may be in-range for the patient.

### Teach Patient

The LPN should also reinforce patient teaching regarding normal and abnormal vital signs, especially if the patient is preparing for discharge. If the patient has a history of hypertension, he or she may need to monitor this at home and treat as needed. Additionally, certain patients may need to monitor for tachypnea (fast breathing), bradycardia (slow heart rate), or fever (high temperature).

## Laboratory Values

Patients in the hospital may frequently have laboratory tests ordered and performed. The resulting values may indicate disease progression or a change in the patient’s status. Therefore, it is important that the LPN both obtain and use these values during patient care.

### Knowledge

The LPN should be able to identify laboratory values as in-range or out-of-range. Additionally, abnormal lab values may indicate either a decline or improvement in the patient’s condition.

ABGs ($pH$, $PO_2$, $PCO_2$, $SaO_2$, $HCO_3$) — Arterial Blood Gas (ABG) samples are frequently collected to test the arterial blood for pH level, saturation of oxygen and carbon dioxide, and bicarbonate. The standard ranges are:

$pH$ 7.38–7.42
$PO_2$ 75–100 mmHg
$PCO_2$ 38–42 mmHg
$SaO_2$ 94–100%
$HCO_3$ 22–28 mEq/L.

BUN— Blood Urea Nitrogen (BUN) tests for the amount of urea in the blood. When the body breaks down proteins, it creates ammonia, which is converted to urea in the liver, and urea is excreted by the kidneys. Therefore, BUN is an indirect test of liver function and kidney impairment. The normal range is 8–21 mg/dL.

cholesterol (total)— Cholesterol is a lipid found in the body. It is created in the liver and small intestine and transported by lipoproteins, such as low-density lipoproteins (LDL) and high-density lipoproteins (HDL). The normal range for total cholesterol is 3–5.5 mmol/L.

glucose— Glucose is a sugar carbohydrate found in the bloodstream. Glucose levels naturally rise after meals, and the pancreas secretes insulin to regulate glucose. It is commonly used in monitoring patients with diabetes. The normal range is 65–110 mg/dL.

hematocrit— Hematocrit is a measure of the percentage of red blood cells (RBCs) in the bloodstream. The normal value for males is 40%–52%, and the normal value for females is 36%–40%. Hematocrit may be tested to determine anemia, bleeding disorders, or fluid imbalance.

hemoglobin— Hemoglobin contains iron and is the main protein of RBCs. Hemoglobin measures the ability of the RBCs to carry oxygen. The normal range for males is 13.5–16.5 g/dL, and the normal range for females is 12–15 g/dL.

*glycosylated hemoglobin (HgbA1C)—v Glycosylated hemoglobin (HgbA1C) is a combination of glucose and hemoglobin. When the glucose level is elevated, the HgbA1C level will also be elevated, and testing HgbA1C can test for a history of blood sugar control. The normal range is 4%–6%.

platelets— Platelets, or thrombocytes, are the smallest type of blood cell, and they are responsible for clotting. Low platelet levels may indicate an increased risk for bleeding, and high levels may indicate an increased risk for clots. The normal range for platelets is 150,000–400,000 cells/mcL.

potassium— Potassium is an abundant electrolyte in the body. It plays a role in acid-base equilibrium along with transmitting electrical impulses in muscles. It is often tested when there are electrolyte imbalances and/or cardiac arrhythmias. The normal range is 3.5–5 mmol/L.

sodium— Sodium is an abundant electrolyte in the extracellular fluid. It plays a role in regulating fluid and electrolyte balance along with blood pressure regulation. The normal range is 135–145 mmol/L.

WBC— White blood cells, also known as leukocytes, are created in the bone marrow and protect the body against infections. High levels of white blood cells may indicate an infection. The normal range is 4,000–10,000 cells/mcL.

creatinine— Creatinine is a byproduct of the metabolism of creatine, and it is excreted by the kidneys. Creatinine is routinely ordered when evaluating renal disease. The normal range for creatinine is 0.8–1.3 mg/dL.

PT— Prothrombin Time (PT) is a measure of how long it takes the blood to clot by testing five different clotting factors. This test can be useful when evaluating response to medications used to prevent blood clots. The normal range is 11–14 seconds.

PTT and APTT— Partial Thromboplastin Time (PTT) and Activated Partial Thromboplastin Time (aPTT) is a measure of how long it takes a fibrin clot to form, and these tests are useful in titrating a patient’s Heparin dosage. The normal range for PTT is 60–70 seconds, and the normal range for aPTT is 20–40 seconds.

INR— International Normalized Ratio (INR) provides a standard result for prothrombin time tests regardless of how the sample was collected. This can be useful in looking into bleeding disorders or monitoring the patient’s response to coumadin (Warfarin). The normal range is 0.9–1.2.

### Actions

When caring for patients that have lab tests ordered, the LPN may be involved in the collection of blood or other fluids for the tests as well as receiving the results.

#### Monitor

As with all patients, the LPN should monitor the patient undergoing diagnostic or laboratory tests and promptly review the results. In many cases, the laboratory tests have been ordered because the patient is symptomatic, and these symptoms may need to be managed prior to when the results are available.

#### Compare

When the lab results are available, the patient’s values should be compared to normal laboratory values. The LPN should note any values that are high or low, and special consideration may need to be taken if any medications or disease processes may be the cause of an abnormal value.

#### Notify

If the patient has abnormal lab test results, the primary healthcare provider should be notified. The primary healthcare provider may order an immediate repeat of the test to rule out a problem with the sample itself, such as lysis of cells.

### Procedures

The LPN should reinforce patient teaching on the purpose of lab tests that have been ordered. In particular, if a lab test requires the patient to fast, the LPN should explain why this is important. Additionally, the LPN may be asked to perform these tests.

venipuncture for blood draws— For most outpatients, when lab tests are ordered, the patient will require a venipuncture to collect the blood for testing. The LPN should ensure that the proper tubes are available prior to performing this task as different tests require different types/colors of tubes.

blood glucose monitoring— Many patients, especially pre-diabetic or diabetic patients, will require regular glucose monitoring. This is typically done using a finger prick and a handheld glucometer as it only requires a few drops of blood.

specimen for diagnostic testing— In addition to blood tests, the LPN may be asked to collect urine, stool, or sputum for diagnostic testing. Routine protocol should be followed, and special steps may need to be taking for specimens like a “clean catch” urine sample.

## Diagnostic Tests

While caring for patients, the LPN may be asked to administer certain diagnostic tests. These include, but are not limited to, electrocardiograms or occult blood tests.

### Perform Electrocardiogram

An Electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) is a diagnostic test that measures the electrical activity of the heart. Leads are placed on specific areas to test, the test is run, and the results are seen on the EKG strip. The EKG is used to detect cardiac arrhythmias by looking for patterns along with prolonged periods between certain segments of the PQRST waveform.

### Perform Other Diagnostic Testing

Additionally, the LPN may be asked to perform other diagnostic testing. This may be done during routine care. For example, oxygen saturation is typically measured with every set of vital signs collected.

blood glucose— Blood glucose testing may be done occasionally for routine monitoring or may be done frequently in diabetic patients. Blood glucose testing can help determine the appropriate dose of insulin to deliver to a diabetic patient.

oxygen saturation— Oxygen saturation, also known as Pulse Ox, measures the saturation of oxygen in the blood. This is typically performed using a finger-probe that is non-invasive, and it is usually included in routine sets of vital signs.

occult blood— Occult blood tests are performed using a stool sample to test for blood in feces. This may be performed to investigate an internal bleeding disorder or may be performed on an annual basis to screen for colon cancer.

### Educate Patient

When the patient has laboratory or diagnostic tests ordered, it is important for the nurse to reinforce patient teaching about the purpose of and collection method for the test. The patient may be anxious about these tests and may benefit from an explanation to alleviate any concerns.