Reading Study Guide for the TEAS

Integration of Knowledge and Ideas

Some questions on this test will ask you to do more than find stated details. To answer them, you need to be able to take various parts of the stated information and combine them to form broader ideas. You will need the following skills to be successful in doing this.

Extend the Text

A text will only take a reader so far. Effective readers go beyond the text and apply reading strategies to help them make meaning and deeper connections with what they are reading. Successful readers preview a text, making predictions about what they might expect from reading it; they question the text as they read, looking for places where they might disagree with an author’s claim and evaluating how effectively the writer anticipates and addresses those potential points of disagreement; they make inferences and draw conclusions based on the information and evidence provided in a text; and they look for ways to make personal connections with the text and apply it to their prior knowledge. This is the higher-level thinking that is now emphasized on the TEAS 7 exam.

Make Predictions

To form a prediction, read the text and determine where the narrative or scope is likely to go next. Then, you must use the word will along with the verb to indicate the nature of the action as something to occur in the future. For instance, if you predict a book’s ending, you might say, “The antagonist and protagonist will face off in a duel to the death.”

Interpret the Text

Do not be a passive reader. Just because it says something on the page doesn’t make it true or accurate. Question the text and challenge the author as you read. Evaluate how effectively the author uses evidence, how varied their sources are, and how logical their argument is.

Draw Conclusions

Using the information the author has provided, and maybe considering some of the information they chose not to provide, draw conclusions about the text. Based on the evidence the author provided and the support or explanation they gave of that evidence, what judgments can you make about their claim or argument? What do they want you to walk away with after reading their text?

Compare and Contrast Themes in Two or More Texts

When you compare and contrast something, you are looking for the similarities and differences between them. Comparing and contrasting themes requires readers to consider two or more texts and to look for the likenesses and the variances between the idea, message, or lesson of each.

Theme vs. Subject

Often used interchangeably, theme and subject are two distinct things. The subject of a text is what it is about and can often be summed up in a word or two: ice cream, lacemaking, blue whales. The theme of a text is the main idea or message the author wants the reader to understand about the subject. It usually takes a little more than a couple words to summarize the theme of a text. For example, the theme might be “the best summer ice cream flavors,” “lacemaking as an art form,” or “blue whales as guardians of the oceans.” Notice that each of those themes contains an opinion of which the writer would need to convince the reader.

In literary texts, subject refers to the characters, setting, and plot of the story while theme refers to the author’s larger message, which is revealed through the characters, setting, and plot of the story. While theme is often referenced in discussion about fictional texts, there are also themes evident in nonfiction texts.

Finding the Theme

To determine the theme of a text, first identify the subject **and summarize the **plot. Determine what the author wants the reader to learn or understand by considering what the characters learn and how they change over the course of the story. Those changes often reflect the big picture idea or universal truth or understanding that the author wants the reader to appreciate.

Narration and Exposition

The storytelling that progresses the action of a text is called narration. This account of characters, setting, and plot can help the reader identify the theme. What conflicts do the characters face? How do they address those challenges? How do the characters change as a result of this experience with conflict? Answers to those questions will help to identify the theme.

Narratives generally follow the same plot format. The reader is introduced to the characters and the setting in the exposition, then the protagonist of the story faces a conflict in the rising action of the story and must make a decision in the climax. As a result of that decision, the falling action moves the reader to the end of the story where a resolution happens and the story comes to a conclusion.

Watching what happens to the characters and how they react through the course of a story gives insight into the theme or universal message the author wants to share with the reader.

Setting

While people often think of setting as the location of a story, it also refers to the time in which the story is set. The setting might be 18th century London or ancient Rome or a grassy meadow with an unidentified time so that it may be any time and is relatable to all readers. Being aware of the setting can help a reader determine the theme since different time periods, cultures, and societies will express different ideas or have different expectations of their community members.

Characters

The individuals within a story that the action happens to are called the characters. Notice that we do not define characters as people because characters are not always human, though they usually take on human characteristics so the reader can connect with them. For example, many children’s stories use animals as the characters. Characters can also be monsters, plants, and even inanimate objects like a pet rock. Understanding these characters and seeing how they evolve (or remain static and don’t change at all!) can help determine the theme. What is it about how the character reacted to a challenge that sends a message as to how the author thinks such issues should be addressed or handled?

Dialogue

Conversation between two or more characters is called dialogue. These exchanges can help give the reader information about a character, the setting, or a conflict within the story, which will then allow the reader to better understand the theme.

Plot

In a narrative, the plot is the action or sequence of events in a story that move the reader from the beginning through the middle to the end. Characters participate in the plot to move the story forward and the experiences they have along the way is often indicative of the theme of the text.

Similarities and Differences in Themes

When you are comparing and contrasting themes, you are looking for the similarities and differences between them. For example, two texts may have the same theme of persevering through adversity, but one is a challenge with another person and the other is a challenge with nature. Before you can determine the similarities and differences in themes across multiple texts, you must first be able to identify the theme within each individual text and then consider the ways in which they are the same and the ways in which they differ.

Multiple Themes in One Work

While it is easy to think about theme in the singular, a literary work may have multiple themes explored throughout the text. This usually occurs in longer texts, such as novels, but it is possible that there is more than one universal idea or lesson the writer wants to offer the reader and so there may be more than one theme present. Remember that themes are “big picture” ideas, however, and don’t confuse multiple aspects of the same theme with being different themes. Ask yourself how the ideas might be related, and if you can make strong connections, they might be part of a bigger theme. If they show more unique characteristics to one another, you may be looking at multiple themes.

Common Themes among Types of Media, Genres, and Cultures

When reading through literature, it is often readily apparent that the author’s writing is heavily influenced by their historical and cultural context. This can be seen in novels from Jane Austen (through speech patterns, home life, and the treatment of women), to contemporary work, such as J.D. Salinger (references to PTSD, focus on stilted families). It is important to be able to discern these influences to determine the purpose of the author and the overall theme of a piece.

The same theme can be found in various genres of writing. One author may convey a theme of “hard work pays off” through fiction, while another uses informational writing to address the same theme, and another may utilize multimedia to get their point across.

Evaluate an Argument

When reading nonfiction texts, which are more likely to include an argument posed by the writer, assess the reasoning the author uses and evaluate their overall argument. Just because someone makes a claim doesn’t mean that it is true or accurate. Evaluate the author’s reasoning, their evidence, their use of language, and what they say and don’t say within the text.

Claims and Counterclaims

An argument is based on a claim, a statement the author makes about a particular subject. The author’s claim may be completely ridiculous, in which case the reader may become more critical than they might be if the claim sounds plausible. When a writer poses a claim that sounds reasonable, the hope is that the reader will accept and agree with it. Critical readers, however, analyze, question, and assess the claims the author makes to see how well they actually hold up against logic, reasoning, and prior experience.

The whole point of an argument is that not everyone sees the subject in the same way. Somebody is going to disagree or have a different perspective. This opposing position or outlook is the counterclaim. Effective writers anticipate the arguments the other side is likely to make and address those counterarguments within their own writing. Effective readers look to see which counterarguments the writer includes and how they rebut those arguments. They also consider what counterarguments the writer does not address and why.

Evidence to Support the Argument

As good as a writer may be with language usage and persuasive writing skills, they must present evidence for the argument. First, find the exact claim made by the author and identify exact words of support (evidence) the author gives for that claim. You will need to ask, “Is the evidence from a valid source?” and “Is the argument validly supported by that source, or does it merely provide related information?” It is important to evaluate the quality of the argument based on the evidence used to support it.

Although the internet may seem a wonderful place, just bursting with information, not all information sources are created equal. Likewise, not all print publications are reliable simply by virtue of being printed and sold. When looking for authoritative sources, it is important to ask yourself one thing: “What makes the author an expert?” Although a novice is certainly capable of synthesizing information about an object or idea, an authoritative text is one delivered by an author with advanced knowledge or experience in the field. It is also important to compare the conclusions of one author with another—did they come to the same conclusion and what can you learn from that?

Supporting Evidence from Other Sources

In addition to their own experiences and understanding, an effective writer will include relevant evidence from a variety of reliable sources in their text. By using multiple sources, the author is telling the audience, “Look! It’s not just me. Here is what experts in the field have to say.” And by using a variety of “voices” in the form of an array of sources, the reader is more likely to agree with the position the writer has taken in their argument.

Sources of evidence are varied and plentiful. Here are some of the sources a writer might use for evidence to support their position in an argument:

• a book or textbook
• an academic journal
• a scientific or research study
• a newspaper or magazine article
• a website

Primary and Secondary Sources

Not all evidence is created equal. Primary sources and texts that have been peer-reviewed are generally considered more reliable and convincing than secondary sources. However, secondary sources can also be used as evidence for an argument, though they should not be solely relied upon as the only support provided.

Being able to find the similarities and differences among people, situations, and ideas is a valuable tool for answering questions about written material. Not only will you need to compare and contrast for specific questions, but doing so will enable you to make other analytical judgments, as well. One important point to consider is whether the author has first-hand experience in the area or is simply quoting someone who does. This would be the difference between a primary and a secondary resource.

False or Misleading Statements

When evaluating an argument, it is important to look for false or misleading statements made by the author or used as evidence by the writer in order to guide the reader to a particular conclusion. We may feel like we should be able to trust an author and the sources they choose to include in their text, but, whether intentional or not, false or misleading statements can be made and the reader should be able to recognize them as such and evaluate why the author may have included them. Was it an honest mistake or were they intentionally trying to mislead the reader?

Use of Rhetorical Devices

Rhetoric refers to the art of using language to persuade an audience. Rhetorical devices are the tools an author uses to manipulate and control language in ways that will result in persuading the audience to accept or at least consider their position. The three most important rhetorical devices are ethos, an appeal to authority or credibility; pathos, an appeal to emotion; and logos, an appeal to logic or reason. By incorporating these three devices, authors are able to effectively persuade the reader by setting themselves up as credible sources who know what they’re talking about, tugging at the reader’s heartstrings, and making logical sense.

To create ethos, logos, and pathos, an author may use personal anecdotes to draw the audience in, analogies to draw connections to concepts that may be more familiar to the reader, and language devices that are intended to catch the audience’s attention and drive home a point.

Integrate Multiple Sources

Whether you are reading an argument or developing your own, the argument that is most effective is often that which integrates multiple sources to prove its validity. By integrating multiple sources, the author develops ethos, indicating they have some knowledge on the topic because they have done some research and study of it. However, the integrity of the source matters, so using credible, reliable sources is important, and the wider the variety used, the more convincing it can be.

Select Only Relevant Data

When evaluating evidence from a source, it is important to select only relevant data to include. Adding in irrelevant or unrelated information can distract the reader from the argument itself. This means determining how well, and to what extent, a piece of evidence supports the claim.

Obtain Various Sources of Data

Authors generally obtain various sources of data to support their claims. This means relying not just on one or two sources, but having a number of different resources to pull information and evidence from. This broader view can help support a claim as it makes the reader feel like a wider audience has considered this subject and they are joining the group rather than being an obscure outlier.

Organize the Data

The more sources being used, the more important it is to consider the organization of the data gleaned from each source. As the writer organizes their evidentiary support, they consider whether it supports or weakens their claim (and if it weakens it, they leave it out), and then determine what order it should be presented in. This often leads to introducing evidence from sources in the order of importance, either most to least or building up from least to most—but all is relevant in some way to supporting the claim. Data might also be organized in chronological order or in a comparison/contrast, cause/effect, or problem/solution format, depending on how the author has structured the argument and selected to organize the text, considering the audience and purpose.

Determine if More Evidence Is Needed

Once the data and evidence from a variety of sources has been gathered and organized, it is time to determine whether more evidence might be needed. Are there gaps where the author is asking the reader to make a leap of faith rather than walking them through evidence that proves the claim? If so, additional evidence inserted at that point might be necessary.

Conversely, it is possible for the volume of evidence to become too overwhelming and for the author’s voice to get lost. If this is the case, the writer may need to determine which examples to cut or whether there is more that can be said about them so they can stay. Evaluating the amount and the balance of evidence helps create a more effective argument.

Synthesize Data to Make Predictions, Make Inferences, and Draw Conclusions

The evidentiary sources and the data they provide are used by the reader to make predictions about the text, to make inferences, and to draw conclusions. As a result, it is important to make sure that accurate data is provided to make this possible. Authors select their data carefully so that readers make the inferences and draw the conclusions desired by the writer.