ELA Study Guide for the SHSAT
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General Information
The English Language Arts (ELA) section of the SHSAT is a paper-and-pencil test that contains 57 questions, which is exactly half of the total questions on the test. The other 57 questions assess math skills. You will need to complete the entire test in three hours, but you may choose the order in which you take the two sections and decide how much time to spend on each. You can plan to spend about half the time (90 minutes) on each section, but you may find that the subject with which you are more comfortable takes you less time than the other section. It will be up to you how to divide your testing time.
The content assessed by the SHSAT ELA section is taken from the New York State Next Generation ELA Learning Standards. If you take the test as an eighth grader, you are responsible for all skills taught through the seventh grade. The test given to ninth graders includes all skills through the eighth grade.
This study guide, our practice questions, and our flashcards are geared toward the SHSAT that is taken by students in eighth grade. If you are a new New York City resident or wish to retake the SHSAT, you may take the test as a ninth grader or rising ninth grader. If this is the case, you will also need to review the eighth-grade skills listed in the link above.
The ELA section encompasses both reading and writing skills. There will be between 38 and 48 questions assessing reading comprehension. The remaining 9 to 19 questions will involve writing skills in the form of revising and editing. You will not be asked to actually write anything. Instead, you’ll be given passages from sentence length to several paragraphs in length to revise and/or edit. Some of the questions will require you to find grammatical, usage, or punctuation errors. Other questions will concern the structure of a passage or group of sentences and how they can be improved.
Reading Comprehension
Comprehension of printed material requires a broad array of reading skills. Be sure to go over all of the following concepts so you’ll know what to expect and can determine exactly what the questions ask.
Main Ideas and Details
The main idea in a text is the key concept or most important point expressed by the writer. It is what the writer wants the reader to know or understand. Writers use details to explain or describe the who, what, when, where, why, and how of the main idea and provide more information about it to enhance the reader’s understanding.
Text Evidence
When detectives are trying to solve a mystery, they look for evidence to prove who committed the crime. Readers look for text evidence, or clues provided in a text, to prove what the main idea of the text is. Text or textual evidence can be used to support your identification of the main idea in a text by explaining which words or ideas led you to determine that a particular idea is the main idea. Details are common forms of text evidence.
Implicit vs. Explicit Statements
Some writers tell the readers information directly so there is no confusion or uncertainty. This is called an explicit statement. For example, “Mark likes chocolate ice cream the best” tells the reader exactly what kind of ice cream Mark prefers. An implicit statement means the reader has to look for clues or evidence in the text to come to a particular conclusion. For example, “Mark decided not to order any ice cream when he saw they didn’t have chocolate” implies that Mark only likes chocolate ice cream because he didn’t order another flavor when they didn’t have chocolate.
Inferences
Because writers sometimes use implicit statements, readers must make educated guesses, or inferences, based on the evidence provided in the text. When making an inference, it is important to think about whether the conclusion being drawn makes logical sense based on experience or understanding and the evidence provided.
Central Idea and Theme
The central or main idea of a text is the key concept of what it is about. The theme is the writer’s idea or position about that subject or main idea. For example, if the main idea of a text is the harm that humans cause the planet, the theme might be that we can minimize our environmental impact if we change some of our behaviors.
Summarizing Text
When you identify the main ideas of a text and restate them in your own words, you are summarizing. A summary is shorter than the original text and includes only the main ideas, not the details. It is good practice to summarize what you read as a quick check of your understanding. If you can’t restate the main ideas of a text, you may need to go back and reread it more carefully.
Literary Text
Novels, short stories, and plays are considered literary texts, fictional pieces of writing meant to entertain. A literary text will usually be set in a particular location or time period, contain a plot, and involve multiple characters.
Plot Elements
The plot of a story is the series of actions or events that move the reader from the beginning to the middle to the end. These are the plot elements. In the beginning, called the introduction or exposition, the reader is introduced to the setting and the characters. As the plot unfolds in the rising action, some kind of conflict generally arises and the main character must make a decision or take action. This is the high point or climax of the story. Then, the rest of the plot (the falling action) shows how things turn out as a result of the decision or action the character made and a resolution or conclusion ends the plot of the story.
Plot Elements and Meaning
The elements of the plot work together to create a cohesive whole. In the exposition, the audience is introduced to the characters and setting. Once the characters are introduced, the rising action of the plot shows how the characters interact with each other and the world around them. The reader might agree or disagree with how a character navigates the world and could feel connected to or annoyed by the characters. A conflict arises and the main character must make a decision, which is the climax, or the high point of the story, where the reader is on the edge of their seat wondering what the character will do. A decision is made or an action is taken and the plot moves into the falling action, where the audience sees the results of the decision or action. As loose ends are wrapped up, there is a sense of resolution, which is the sense of conclusion that leaves the audience with some level of satisfaction to know how everything turned out. The plot elements help the audience see the theme of the text unfold along the way.
Informational Text
While literary texts are generally works of fiction, informational text is nonfiction writing intended to inform the reader about a particular topic or subject. Informational texts can be about events, people, or ideas and often take many forms, including articles, biographies, essays, instruction manuals, or textbooks. These texts explain ideas, people, or events to educate or inform the audience.
Introduction of Elements
In an informational text, the subject or topic being explained is usually introduced in the first paragraph. Body paragraphs then provide additional, specific information about the topic, including details that support, explain, or provide examples. Informational texts generally conclude with a paragraph that wraps up the main ideas presented in the body paragraph and gives the writing a sense of conclusion or ending.
Relationship of Elements to Each Other
The relationship of elements depends on the topic, structure, and purpose of the text. In an informational text organized in a chronological manner, ideas are presented in order of time. In a cause and effect structure, a cause is presented and then the effect of that event is explained.
Development of Elements
The number of examples, the level of details, vocabulary used, and development of the elements are dependent upon the writer’s purpose and intended audience.
Craft and Structure
The terms craft and structure refer to how a writer constructs a text, from their word choice to their organization. The sentence structure, vocabulary, and use of figurative language are all considered part of the craft and structure of a text.
Word Meanings
The English language contains hundreds of thousands of different words. This means writers have a lot of choices when they craft their writing. Effective readers must determine the meaning of the words writers use in order to make meaning of the text itself. Some words readers are likely to know right away because they are familiar words that are used often. However, sometimes readers come across unfamiliar words in a text and must determine their meaning on their own. Below are some strategies for determining the meanings for unfamiliar words.
Context Clues
One of the most common strategies effective readers use when they encounter an unfamiliar word in a text is using context clues to figure out the meaning. As the name implies, this requires looking in the text itself for hints or clues about what an unfamiliar word means. This might mean looking in the text for a definition that might be provided for a term, looking for a synonym or antonym used, looking for an example to help determine meaning, or inferring the meaning based on what the surrounding text says.
Roots and Affixes
Another strategy readers can use to help determine the meaning of an unfamiliar word is to break it down into roots and affixes. A root word is the smallest unit of a word and does not have anything added to the beginning or the end to change its meaning. Many root words come from Latin or Greek words. For example, cent is a Latin root meaning one hundred. Root words can have affixes attached to either the beginning or the end of the root to change the meaning of the word. For example, a century is a measurement of one hundred years.
If an affix is attached to the front of a root word, it is called a prefix. You can remember that because pre- means before and these word parts come before a root word. A suffix is an affix added to the end of a root word. Root words can have both prefixes and suffixes added to them and there might be more than one prefix and/or suffix attached to a root word. This is why it’s helpful to know some of the more common prefixes and suffixes so that when you see them in an otherwise unfamiliar word, you can use them to help you make meaning.
For example:
| Prefix | Meaning | Used in a Word |
|---|---|---|
| anti- | against | antibiotic |
| dis- | not, opposite of | disagree |
| pre- | before | preread |
| sub- | under | submarine |
| Suffix | Meaning | Used in a Word |
|---|---|---|
| -able/-ible | can be done | believable |
| -ed | makes a verb past tense | danced |
| -less | without | painless |
| -ment | action or process | improvement |
Denotative and Connotative Meaning
Words can also have different denotative and connotative meanings. The denotative meaning of a word (also called the denotation) is what it actually, literally means. If you were to look the word up in a dictionary, it’s what you would find. The connotative meaning of a word, or its connotation, is how the word makes a reader feel.
For example, the denotation of skinny is “unattractively or unusually thin” (Oxford Language). Its connotation is often negative, especially if it’s intended to suggest or focus on an ugliness.
That skinny horse looks like it’s going to blow over in the wind!
The denotation of slender is “gracefully thin” (Oxford Language). It’s a synonym of skinny—they both mean “thin”—but its connotation is more positive.
The slender ballerina floated across the stage.
Figurative Speech and Writing
Not all words are meant to be taken literally. Writers sometimes use figurative speech or words used outside their normal, literal meaning to create a particular effect on the reader. For example, writers might use similes (“He was like a beast.”) or metaphors (“He was a beast.”) to make connections between things the reader is familiar with and things they may be less familiar with. Allusions are references to well-known people, events, or ideas and they help writers guide the reader toward making certain connections with characters. Writers might use puns, plays on words, to add humor to their text. Irony uses words to express something that is usually the opposite of what is expected, and this can create suspense or humor.
Word Choice
A writer’s diction, or word choice, affects the meaning and tone of a text. If the writer uses words with pleasant connotations, the text is enjoyable for the reader to read. If the writer uses words with a scary or threatening tone, it can be unpleasant for the reader to read the text. Because there are so many words to choose from, a writer carefully considers their word choice and purposefully selects their words based on their purpose in writing and on their audience.
Synonyms and Antonyms
Knowing synonyms and antonyms can help determine a word’s meaning and can help identify other words with similar or opposite meanings. A synonym is a word that has the same or similar meaning to another word (like our examples of skinny, slender, and thin from earlier). An antonym is a word that means the opposite of a given word. For example, an antonym to skinny might be plump.
Analogy
To help their readers understand a concept they might not be familiar with, writers may use analogies. An analogy is a comparison between things to show how they are similar or related. They are often presented in the form of similes and metaphors. For example, “Walking across the stage at graduation brought a roller coaster of emotions; everyone was glad to have made it, but sad to say goodbye.”
Multiple-Meaning Words
As the name suggests, multiple-meaning words are words that have different meanings depending on the context in which they are used. Knowing that the same word can have different denotations can help readers determine how a word is used in a text. This determination can be a key to understanding that text.
The different uses are also often different parts of speech. For example, you might say you were dusting (verb) the furniture or that there was a dusting (noun) of snow on the mountains. One use of dusting suggests getting rid of a fine layer of dirt or grit, the other is a light sprinkling of something.
Consider these examples:
The police could trace the call back to the kidnappers. (verb)
There was no trace of cookies left after the dog visited the kitchen. (noun)
In the first use, trace refers to tracking something down or discovering it. The second refers to a sign or indication of something.
Words Specific to the Content Area
Different content areas or subjects have different words that are commonly used to discuss them. For example, in a science class you might refer to the hypothesis, be able to identify the chloroplast in a plant, or explain the six kingdoms. In a math class, you might talk about a number sequence, the adjacent angle, or a whole number. Knowing the words specific to different content areas can help a reader gain meaning from a text if they know what those words are referring to or what they mean when used in a particular context.
Text Structure
A text’s structure refers to the way the writer organizes the information in the text. Structure is often determined by the writer’s audience and purpose, but generally includes multiple paragraphs.
Literary
In a literary text, the structure will often use the “plot mountain” format, beginning with an exposition, moving to the rising action, reaching a climax, the falling action, and the resolution. The characters and setting are introduced, then the reader watches the characters interact and some kind of conflict begins to develop before a climactic moment is reached where the main character must make a decision or take action to address the conflict. Based on that decision or action, the reader then sees how things unfold as a result and a resolution is reached
The theme, or central idea, is developed throughout the course of the story so that by the end, the reader can identify the writer’s main message to the audience.
Informational
Informational texts generally begin with an introductory paragraph(s) that introduces the reader to the writer’s main idea and thesis statement. Once the topic and the writer’s position with regard to the topic have been introduced, body paragraphs follow that contain the details, support, or explanation of the writer’s subject. Informational texts usually end with a conclusion paragraph that wraps up the ideas that have been shared in the body paragraphs.
Point of View and Perspective
In literary texts, the term point of view refers to the type of narrator used to tell a story and whose viewpoint it’s told from. The perspective or feelings of that character is evident in how they react or respond to the story they are telling. Informational texts may also indicate the perspective of the writer with regard to their topic, but point of view isn’t usually used when discussing a nonfiction, informational text.
Literary Text
In literary texts, there is often a narrator who tells the story and leads the reader through the events. This might be a first-person narrator (story is told from the “I” point of view), a third-person limited narrator (the narrator is a character in the story and the reader follows this character like a shadow through the book, interpreting things from their perspective), or a third-person omniscient narrator (the narrator knows all of the thoughts and feelings of all of the characters and the reader can “pop into” multiple characters’ minds). A writer’s use of narrator affects the mood and tone of the story, as the reader may have limited understanding of the motivations and perspectives of all characters without a third-person omniscient narrator.
Informational Text
Informational texts aren’t generally considered to have a point of view, but the reader can determine the writer’s perspective on the subject based on how the information is presented, what examples are included, and what bias might be present. Writers of informational texts may or may not address different viewpoints or perspectives within their writing, and this gives the reader a sense of the writer’s perspective based on what they include and what they leave out.
Knowledge and Ideas
In reading a text, the reader is considering the writer’s presentation of their knowledge and ideas against their own understanding and experiences. As they look to integrate this knowledge and these ideas, effective readers often compare and contrast multiple texts or text genres on the same subject to see what other writers have to say. Readers are looking to make connections with the people, events, or ideas presented in the text, evaluate the content, and apply their understanding beyond their reading.
Arguments
Writers often present arguments in their texts, taking a position for or against a topic, or presenting both sides of the argument and allowing the reader to decide their position. Readers can trace the development of a writer’s argument from how it is initially presented to how it is supported and by what evidence or examples. If a writer has presented a clear claim and well-reasoned evidence, the reader might be persuaded by the argument and agree with the writer’s claim. If the evidence is insufficient or untrustworthy, the reader may not be persuaded by the writer’s claim.
Claim
A writer’s claim is the position they take with regard to an issue or topic. Usually, the claim is a position not everyone would necessarily agree with, and this is why the writer must argue their claim and provide evidence and examples to support it. Others who disagree with the claim would offer alternative evidence and examples to support their position. In informational texts, the claim is usually part of the thesis statement, often located at the end of the first paragraph of the text.
Development
To help make their argument and support their claim, writers must develop their text to include relevant examples and evidence. If the claim is weak, it will be hard to find evidence to support it and the reader will not be persuaded. Developing the argument means finding trustworthy, convincing evidence that will persuade the reader on both the logical and emotional levels. Writers want to include enough evidence in their development of the claim to be convincing, but not so much that they overwhelm the reader or make them bored. If there is too little evidence or development, the reader won’t be persuaded.
Reasoning
When evaluating the evidence or examples a writer uses, the reader must apply a sense of reason and logic. Reasoning means that the reader uses their rational thinking to determine whether a statement made by a writer is valid. Does it make sense to the brain? If the answer is yes, then reasoning suggests the evidence can be trusted and accepted. If the answer is no, then it’s because reasoning suggests there’s something that is invalid in the claim or the evidence used to support it.
Evidence
When arguing a position and trying to convince others of the validity of that position, writers use evidence or proof. It’s not enough, however, to make a claim and offer some evidence if that evidence is not relevant or sufficient. Relevant evidence means proof or examples that are related and applicable to the claim. For example, if the writer’s argument is that school start times for middle schoolers should be later, but their evidence is that adults require 7-9 hours of sleep per night, that’s not relevant evidence. Instead, relevant evidence to the claim about a later school start time might be that developing adolescent brains require 8-10 hours of sleep per night.
Arguments must also provide a sufficient or adequate amount of evidence. Too little and the audience may not be convinced. Too much and they may feel overwhelmed or lose interest.
Text Quality
All writing is not created equal. Some texts are more clear and organized than others. Some use more reliable resources for evidence or make claims that are more reasonable than others. When evaluating text quality, there are several things to keep in mind. Evaluating a text’s arguments, evidence, structure, and integration of ideas can help the reader determine the quality and reliability of a text.
Criteria
When evaluating a text, a reader should apply certain criteria, or standards, as they look at the text. Is the text organized in a logical way? Is the language appropriate for the audience and purpose? Does the writer have authority, experience, or credibility to discuss a particular subject? Is the evidence used to support the argument logical and reliable? These are some of the criteria to consider when evaluating the quality of a text.
Connections
A quality text is one that makes sense, is logically organized, and transitions the reader effectively from start to finish. Consider the connections the writer makes to other texts or resources, to life experience, or to the reader directly as you evaluate the quality of a text. Below are some specific elements to consider when evaluating the quality of a text.
other texts—One way a writer can support their argument or position is by using evidence from other texts. How effectively does a text make connections to other texts? Are the texts that are referenced from known and reliable sources? Is there a variety of other texts the writer uses to try to help the reader make connections as they read? Answers to these questions can help determine the quality of a text: if the writer isn’t making connections to other texts or is making connections to texts that may be questionable sources of reliable information, then it may not be a quality text.
common ideas—Writers try to help their readers better understand an argument by making connections to common ideas or generally accepted “knowledge.” However, if the writer is making connections to ideas that don’t make sense or positions that reflect negative bias, it may not be a quality text.
cultural perspectives—There are many perspectives, or points of view, from which to see the world. What connections is the writer making to other perspectives? Are they all from the same group of people, or are multiple perspectives represented in the connections being offered? Texts that include a wider variety of cultural perspectives are likely higher quality than those who only offer a limited point of view.
eras—Depending on the text, the writer may need to provide some background information to help the reader understand a particular perspective or event. As we become a more global society and better understand other communities around the world, we sometimes question why people behaved in a particular way in the past. This is often because it was a different era or time period, when understanding or customs were different. Quality texts will explain the era or time period and how it may differ from our current understanding in order to help the reader better understand the actions of people in the past.
personal experiences—Writers may also try to help the reader make meaning of a text by offering personal experiences with which the reader can connect. Texts that offer the personal experiences of the writer, or that help the reader make personal connections to the events or arguments in a text, are usually indicative of quality texts.
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