Subtest III: Visual and Performing Arts Study Guide for the CSET Multiple Subjects Test

Theater

Theater is entertainment where actors use dialog and technicians create spectacle to produce a play. Plays are designed to entertain, distract, educate, and inform an audience. The actors’ dialog (speech) is written in a script. The technicians are guided by production designers.

The entire production is overseen by one or more producers. Under the producers is the director. Everyone else in the production reports (directly or indirectly) to the director. The entire artistic vision of the play is in the control of the director.

Creating a Story

The single most important part of a play is the story. The story allows the audience to have a common experience.

The starting point for the story is the script. The director and the actors use the dialog in the script as the starting point to tell the story and form characterization, which is the construction and portrayal of a fictional character (an actor uses their entire body to express this characterization).

Improvised drama/comedies/skits don’t have a script. Instead, actors work from a special outline called a scenario. With improvisational skit comedy (short scenes), the scenario might be preplanned before the skit starts, or the actors might just start and see what happens. During a performance, skilled improvisers can preplan a scenario with the exchange of just a few words. No amount of spectacle and/or special effects will entertain an audience if the story is weak or unengaging.

Dramatic Play and Guided Drama

Make Believe

Another way to say dramatic play is “make believe.” Active, imaginative play allows a student or small child to interact with others, creating activity and spontaneous dialog. Kindergarten recess is full of dramatic play: kids being firefighters, playing “cops and robbers,” pretending to be animals, etc. Anyone that has seen a child turn a cardboard tube into a lightsaber has seen dramatic play.

Much of improvisational theater is dramatic play, usually working from a scenario.

Dramatic play can be used in junior high school and high school as a warm-up exercise. Also, when preparing for a public recital, it can be used in the first few rehearsals to explore the character’s motivations and dialog.

Close Your Eyes

Guided imagery is a narrative provided by the teacher/director. Everyone is instructed to “close your eyes and imagine…” The teacher then describes things that are to be imagined.

Guided imagery is sometimes used as a warm-up activity or as a way to help the actors envision a background of sights, smells, or emotions. It can also be used as a relaxing exercise.

Voices and Gestures

Theater is largely an audio/visual experience. The audience listens and watches.

The voice can be manipulated in many different ways to create a desired effect. Aspects of the voice that can be changed include:

volume
accent
distinctive speech patterns

Similarly, varied gestures can also enhance the performance:

pointing
splaying of the fingers
grasping
shaking a fist

The single most common problem with beginning students is a lack of vocal volume. Most school theaters are unamplified. Students must be taught how to project while speaking.

In order to project, follow these steps:

Maintain good posture (e.g., back straight, head held up).
Keep the feet slightly separated (shoulder’s width apart).
Breathe from the diaphragm (the belly should move in and out, the chest should not move, and the shoulders should not go up and down).
Take big breaths (avoid small breaths or panting).

Note: The diaphragm is a dome-shaped muscle that separates the thorax (lungs and heart) from the abdomen (which includes the organs of digestion). Contracting the belly (simultaneously relaxing the diaphragm) causes the diaphragm to rise. This rise presses on the bottom of the lungs, expelling air. When the diaphragm contracts (simultaneously relaxing the belly), this causes the diaphragm to lower, pulling air into the lungs

Projecting while speaking is different from yelling. Yelling constricts the neck and vocal cords. This can strain or injure the vocal cords. Most trained singers are already trained to project.

Note: Articulation (diction) is also important and should be taught at the same time as projection.

Improvisation

Improvisational theater is a wonderful teaching device. Free expression of ideas, dialog, sounds, and movement can get your students’ creativity flowing. It can also be used as a warm-up exercise.

Note: Don’t single out young/inexperienced actors. Younger actors should be guided to improvise as part of group activities.

Forms of Improvisation

There are many different ways to improvise.

Skit—The most familiar form is the improvised skit (short scene) involving two or more people speaking. This is the form most often seen on TV.

Poem—The various types of poem improvisations include:

One actor makes up a line of a poem. The next actor gives another line that rhymes.
With the actors standing in a circle, one starts and everyone else gives a rhyme in response, without repeating. An example could be cow, now, sow, wow, bow, etc. The first to fail to find a rhyme gets a point and starts with a new word.

Song—Improvising a song is usually a music activity. A performer can sing words or free-form jazz scatting or “la la la” their way through a song.

Storytelling—Making up a story on the fly is an advanced improvisation technique. The easiest way to improvise a story is to have the class think up a scenario before starting to speak (or work from a pre-prepared scenario). Having a clear idea of where the story is going makes telling the story easier, and decreases the chances of the students working the story into a corner.

Idea—Working from a common idea, each student improvises. Throw out a concept (e.g. happiness, joy, returning home) and have the students speak in turn, in pairs or groups.

Theater Work—This involves improvised scenes, either created from scratch or based on a play that the students are already working on.

Joke—Jokes aren’t actually improvisational techniques; jokes are almost always prepared and memorized beforehand. They are included in this section because they can be a good warm-up technique and they bring levity to a rehearsal:

Each student tells a joke.
Each student gives a punchline. The other students have to guess the joke just based on the punchline.
Each student is asked to bring a joke for the next rehearsal. The joke should relate somehow to the play being rehearsed or some common theme.

Spoken Word—There are a lot of spoken word exercises. A common exercise is forming sentences by having each actor speak a single word.

A Game of Questions—Two actors, in turn, ask questions. A player loses if they:

fail to ask a question
make a statement
repeat something
say something nonsensical

Person A: “Would you like to play a game of ‘Questions’?”
Person B: “Don’t you know that I love to play ‘Questions’?”
Person A: “How would I know that?”
Person B: “Isn’t it obvious?”
etc.

”Hold Forth—A student is given a subject or topic. The student has to lecture on the subject or topic. The most nonsensical lecture wins.

Person A: “Hold Forth on ‘stainless steel’.”

Person B: “The best stainless steel is made from cheese. The cheese is subjected to high pressure, then frozen. Stainless steel is often used as a substitute for paper in the finest books.”

Design

The spectacle of the play is created by designers and built by the technicians. It means a visual display, especially if eye-catching, dramatic, or striking.

A director will be assisted by a team of designers, each directing a crew of technicians. Here the designers are listed in order of precedence:

stage designer
costume designer
lighting designer
props designer
make-up designer
sound designer

The first two designers on the above list are usually called in early in the creative process. It is common for the set design and costume design to be completely finished before the cast is considered. Construction on the set can be started before the cast has been finalized. The costume designer can start preparations early, but most of the costume construction will have to wait until the cast is finalized. The props will often be designed (and built) by the same person/people who build the scenery. The lighting designer is often brought in only a few weeks before technical rehearsals start. The make-up and sound people will often be brought in late in the process, perhaps a few days before the first dress rehearsal.

Technical Theater Elements

Everything that the audience sees and hears (other than the actors) is produced by the designers and their crews. It is important that the director works closely with the designers and the designers work with each other to produce a cohesive audio/visual experience.

There is a lot of overlap between the related crafts. Sometimes, one designer will fill two roles:

stage and props (both considered carpentry)
costume and make-up (closely related)
lighting and sound (both involve electricity)

Stage—The stage design includes all the carpentry:

everything that the actors stand on
the walls
furniture
doors and windows
carpets
set dressing (things attached to the walls)

The people who build the sets and props are called “carpenters.” The people who handle the set during a performance are called “stagehands” (in movie production, “grips”). In an academic setting, they are usually the same people.

Costume—The costume design includes all the pieces that the actors wear:

clothes
shoes
hats
purses
accessories
wigs (work with the make-up crew)
fake facial hair (work with the make-up crew)

The people who make costumes are called the “costume crew.” The people who handle the costumes, clean the costumes, and make minor repairs during a performance are called the “wardrobe crew.” In an academic setting, they are usually the same people. The people who help the actors dress are called “dressers.” In an academic setting, there usually won’t be any dressers.

Lighting—The lighting design includes anything that produces light or uses electricity (except for the sound equipment):

stage lighting
practical lighting (table lamps)
lanterns
flashlights carried by the actors
anything that produces light, including any light source that uses real flame (work with the props crew)
wall sconces (work with the stage crew on hanging/placement)

The lighting department is largely responsible for the electric power on stage. An electrical prop (such as a blender or toaster) will be the joint responsibility of the props department and the lighting department.

Props—The prop design includes everything that is carried by an actor:

hand props
weapons

Note: Usually, there is a separate “armorer” or “safety officer” who oversees weapon safety. Carefully follow your school’s guidelines for the use of weapons in productions, even if the weapons are fake.

Make-up—The make-up design includes any color/texture applied to the face and/or other body parts:

make-up
appliances (e.g., scars)
wigs (work with the costume crew)
fake facial hair (work with the costume crew)

Sound—The sound design includes any sound that is produced:

amplifying the actors
amplifying the musicians
sound effects
practical doorbell (work with stage crew on hanging/placement)
recording the performance for post-show replay

Other—Some productions require specialized crew members. Usually, these specialty crew members are folded into a standard crew. Rarely are they a distinct crew or department:

armorer/safety/weapons crew—(usually part of the props crew)
special effects crew—(usually part of the lighting or stage crew)
projection crew (e.g., projectors, film, slides; usually part of the lighting crew)

Safety Note: Stages are filled with hazards, both obvious and hidden. Safety should be a prime consideration. With certain props, there are additional hazards. Only the most responsible crew and actors should be allowed to handle props that are problematic. Do not be afraid to make safety rules that the students might not like (e.g., “The only people allowed up the ladder are the three actors that need to use it during the performance, whom I have specifically trained.” “The only people allowed to touch the fake gun are the actor that uses it and the two stagehands, all of whom have been specifically trained.”)

Physical Limitations

Directors and designers need to work with the space available. Not every theater has a fly-loft, massive wings, or a dedicated shop space. Fitting everything in must be planned beforehand.

Depth— There are limits to what can fit in the theater space. Staging a complicated show in a small space can be frustrating.

The director and the set designer start with the script and a detailed to-scale floor plan of the stage. As part of the design process, add flat, paper cut-outs of the planned set pieces. Later in the design process, 3D models of the proposed design will replace the paper cut-outs. The proposed paint plan will be shown with watercolor renderings. Then construction plans and budgets are prepared. These pre-production design elements will help guide the construction crews during the construction process.

Be realistic about physical constraints. Not everything will fit. Be prepared to scale back, cut unnecessary items, or generally make things fit.

The director and the scene designer should also have a plan for what happens if they run out of time. Often, this will involve deciding which set pieces could be cut (or reduced in complexity) without dramatically affecting the design. Deciding beforehand will reduce stress during the last few weeks of construction if the set construction goes badly.

Height—There are practical limits to how tall the set pieces can be. Just as with depth, vertical space must also be considered.

A flat is a wood frame covered with muslin and then painted. In a high school theater, they are a standard size: eight feet tall and four feet wide. This is a good height for high school students to handle. Most (but not all) junior high students can handle an eight-foot-tall flat. Theaters with more vertical room may choose ten or twelve feet or taller for their flat height. Anything taller than eight feet requires the use of ladders, and your school might have rules regarding students on ladders. On the other hand, a tiny theater might need to use a shorter height.

Flats can be various widths, but, generally, they will all be the same height to allow reuse in subsequent productions. Some flats use square steel tubing instead of wood, which makes them very strong. Some flats are hard-covered (luan or masonite), which makes them very heavy.

Design on a Very Small Scale and Budget

For smaller productions, there won’t be a full set of designers and a complete set of crews/stagehands. A teacher/director will need to get creative. Often, there is little or no budget for carpentry, costuming, etc. In many schools, the “theater space” is merely a raised platform with a few drapes. It is important to remember that the story is the most important thing. Good storytelling and good acting can “sell” a scene better than special effects. If the students/actors believe, the audience will follow.

Props

Creative use of existing items is essential. Cardboard and paint can make acceptable props. Paint stores often have gallons of “mis-mixed” paint free for hauling away. The dumpster at the neighborhood hardware store can be a treasure trove for the cash-strapped artist. Ask nicely.

Puppets

There is an entire world of puppets and puppetry, filled with ancient traditions and modern influences. Students are often introduced to puppets as a way to externalize expression. Puppets can be constructed fairly easily and cheaply.

Costumes

In school performances, the costumes will sometimes be drawn from the students’ own wardrobe or even that of their parents or other family members and friends. With a little creativity and some parental sewing skills, common wardrobe pieces can be converted into costumes.

Contextual Analysis

A theater teacher/director needs to analyze theater from a social/political perspective. The theater of each nation is reflected in the theater they produce. It is impossible to remove the world view and religious beliefs of the playwright from the scripts that they produced. Be sure to consider the following when choosing production material and consider their effect on your intended audience.

Cultural

Cultural differences are dramatic between nations and time periods.

Consider the stark differences between:

The plays of the great Molière, which were written in the 1600s, and were performed for the King of France at Louvre Palace.
The light opera of Gilbert and Sullivan, whose works include:
- The Mikado
- The Pirates of Penzance
- H.M.S. Pinafore

Historical

When reviewing a play from a past century, much of the character motivation and behavior might seem odd to a modern audience. It is important to remember that the character behavior would have likely seemed normal to a contemporary audience.

Global

Nations and regions have theater that differs from the theater in other parts of the globe. The theater in the United States is largely descended from the theater of Western Europe, especially from England, France, and Italy. Japanese (historical) theater is very different, relying more heavily on spectacle.

13 Kabuki Actor.png Kabuki actor

Onoe Kikugorō VI as Umeō-maru in Sugawara Denju Tenarai Kagami. Retrieved from: https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/0/0c/Kikugor%C5%8D_Onoe_VI_as_Ume%C5%8D-maru.jpg

Much of Shakespeare is directly relatable to modern audiences because he writes about common human themes. However, when looking at the background and motivations of the characters, the characters sometimes behave in a way that would seem completely normal to a contemporary audience but alien to a modern audience.