Subtest I: Reading, Language Arts, and Literature Study Guide for the CSET Multiple Subjects Test

Non-Written Communication

As discussed earlier, not all communication is written; but the rules and conventions applied to written texts also apply to non-written forms of communication. Students may be asked to deliver non-written forms of communication when they give oral presentations to the class or engage in storytelling. This section focuses on non-written forms of communication.

Genres

As with written communication, there are different genres of non-written communication. Understanding the main elements and characteristics of each is imperative. Here are some of the most common genres of non-written communications with which you should be familiar.

Narratives— Narratives are stories. From the beginning of time, humankind has been using oral traditions and storytelling to share stories about creation, history, ethics, etc. with the next generation. Elders would share stories of struggles and experiences and share their narratives with the young. Narratives are structured with a beginning, middle, and end, and generally follow a basic plot map: characters are introduced, characters face a conflict, characters make a decision about how to deal with the conflict, the resulting actions are shared. Sometimes, these stories have morals or lessons the audience is to learn, sometimes they help to explain some kind of natural mystery, sometimes the story is just to entertain.

Persuasive pieces— Persuasive pieces come in a variety of forms and formats. Non-written persuasive pieces are usually delivered as some sort of speech, lecture, or presentation. The purpose of a persuasive piece is to persuade or convince the audience to believe or agree with something they may not otherwise have believed or agreed with. To be effective in this purpose, persuasive pieces must include adequate support in the form of examples or evidence that would convince even the most doubtful in the audience of its plausibility. Persuasive pieces utilize ethos, logos, and pathos to persuade the audience, which is to say that the speaker establishes his or her credibility and appeals to the audience’s sense of logic and to their emotions.

Research presentations— Like their written counterpart, the research report, research presentations are informative in nature. They explain to an audience information or findings about a particular subject or topic using logical examples, often numbers and statistics. Research presentations objectively report on the findings a communicator has discovered as a result of research into and study of a topic.

Poetry recitations— Poetry recitations require a speaker to dramatically read or recite a poem. Because of the emotional nature of poetry, poetry recitations must be emotive so that the message is effectively delivered to the audience. Poetry recitation is a long-standing tradition; poets have been reciting poetry to audiences for centuries, including in the ancient Greek culture where epic poems would entertain audiences for hours.

Responses to literature— Non-written communication may also take the form of responses to literature; that is, discussing and sharing thoughts about a text and its message. In the classroom, discussions about text either as a whole class or in small groups or with partners allow students to share their thoughts about what they have read in a conversation with others.

Diverse Media and Formats

In today’s “digital age,” the variety of media formats available to spread written and non-written communications is vast. Information presented in these formats reach a wide, potentially global, audience. CSET® test-takers should have a broad conceptual knowledge of these formats, understand how and when to effectively use them, and be able to analyze and evaluate the information provided by each.

Visual— Visual media includes everything from TV commercials to billboard ads to website design. It is important to be able to critically analyze what is being presented visually to determine the audience, purpose, and message. Understanding when and how to effectively use visual communication strategies is assessed on the CSET®.

Quantitative— Integrating multiple types and sources of information into a presentation helps keep the audience engaged and works to help meet the purpose, whether that is to entertain, persuade, or inform. Using too many different formats can muddle the message. Use too few and you might miss potential audiences. So quantitatively selecting or evaluating the media sources and formats that are used is an important skill.

Oral— Much of the non-written communication we think of is presented orally. In the form of speeches, presentations, and how-to videos, this media format is enormous. From YouTube® videos to TedTalks®, the oral format is often used to share a message with the audience.

Social— Social media sites abound and it seems more join the arena every week. Social media reaches a wide audience and can be used to disseminate information quickly. However, making informed decisions about what to post, and to what site, is a responsibility teachers must consider seriously. When using social media with students, their online safety is paramount.

Commercial— Commercial media is run by privately run organizations, as opposed to state or government-sponsored programming. As a result, it is a business—a business of selling products or information or ideas to an audience. Understanding the values of a particular audience determines how advertising will be structured. Commercials that run as advertisements on TV or radio select their words carefully and must be effective in delivering a message to the audience in a very brief amount of time.

Political— Political media refers to the way in which news and information about politics is spread. Arising from talk shows and news programs on TV and radio, political media is a growing segment of media these days. The same strict, critical analysis of political media must take place as it would for any other type of media.

Understanding Speaker’s Argument/Claim

Expository texts that aim to inform, persuade, or argue a particular point all present a writer’s argument or claim put forth to the reader. The same element is found in non-written communication that tries to inform, persuade or argue. Listening to not only what the speaker is saying but also how he or she is saying it will help the audience understand the overall argument or claim being made.

Reasoning— Good reasoning is a person’s ability to think about something in a logical way. To not be moved solely by emotion, reasoning requires the application of logic and rational thought. The argument or claim made by a speaker must be analyzed reasonably. Does it make sense? Is it a logical conclusion the speaker is asking me to draw? If the audience’s mind doesn’t come to the same conclusion or hold judgment in the same way as the speaker, the audience will not be convinced and the argument or claim will be ineffective.

Relevance— People tend to care more about what impacts them, personally. So, when a speaker is trying to deliver an argument or claim to an audience, it is important that he or she consider how the argument or claim might be relevant to the audience. Why should they care? How will this impact them or the people they care about? If the audience has no sense of connection, if the argument is not relevant to their lives or they cannot clearly see the connection themselves, the claim will be lost on them and they are likely to tune out.

Sufficiency of evidence— When trying to convince an audience of a particular argument or claim, it is important to include not only sufficient evidence, but also relevant evidence (see above). If the speaker is trying to convince the audience of a particular argument or claim but only present it and say “so there you go,” the audience is not likely to be moved. Instead, the speaker must include enough evidence to prove or make the point (without overwhelming the audience with facts or statistics) and ensure that the evidence is relevant to the audience and the examples and evidence will resonate with them.

New Language Development Stages

Language development comes in stages. It is imperative that teachers be aware of students’ developing abilities when planning language instruction to ensure that appropriate and timely skills are being taught. In one’s native language, these stages take place from birth to about 7 years of age. When learning a new language, the student undergoes similar stages of learning in approximately the same order, but ages may vary widely. The stages listed below are the ones you’ll probably encounter among your students.

Pre-production (beginning)— This is the earliest stage of language development and is marked by an inability to effectively verbalize answers. Although language learners may know some of the vocabulary of the language, their mastery of how to use the words is not yet developed. When they attempt to answer questions or communicate in the non-native language, they may mispronounce words or use words in an incorrect order within the sentence. Misplacing the syllabic emphasis is not uncommon. Rather than pointing out errors to English Learners, it is often more helpful to model correct language usage and to restate words or sentences that were used incorrectly in the correct manner so that they can hear the correct usage.

Early production stage— As students begin to use language, activities that allow students to use visual clues to help them produce simple words and sentences may help them “find” the words they are trying to use to communicate. One support for students in the early production stage is to have them point to pictures and then use words and sentences to describe what they see. Student vocabularies continue to grow during this stage, increasing in complexity. Purposefully grouping ELs and native speakers together can help language learners build their vocabularies and language skills.

Speech emergence— Designated as a “low-intermediate stage”, when students are in the speech emergence stage of language development, they are forming basic sentences and using relatively simple vocabulary to express their ideas. As the name suggests, their speech abilities in the language are just beginning to emerge in a way that measures their communication as effective.

Intermediate fluency— By the time students reach intermediate language fluency, they may be asked higher-level thinking questions. Responses that require more cognitive skills, that ask for their opinions or for them to defend a position, require students to use language in a more advanced way. This helps to strengthen and build language proficiency and increase vocabulary, but must be carefully balanced with an understanding of the student’s current developmental stage and adequate scaffolding and support provided to help them apply language to effectively express their thoughts.

Advanced fluency— Students with advanced fluency exhibit near-native language usage. Advanced fluency does not mean that a student may no longer have an accent or apply certain expressions in their speech. At this stage, students generally have more confidence in their language ability and are more comfortable using the language in both social and academic environments. Students who have achieved advanced fluency begin to understand and apply more idiomatic expressions and nuanced language in their speech.

The bottom line to all of this discussion is that it’s not enough to know just if the student can speak the language or not, but where he or she is in the process. This is because different expectations and levels and types of teacher support are needed at each stage.

Analyze Speech

As students learn a new language, it is important to help them develop good habits in their speaking and writing. This includes analyzing their vocal characteristics, speech, and speech patterns to address these elements.

Volume— When speaking, it is important to note one’s volume. Awareness of the volume necessary to connect with the audience ensures that the speaker’s message can be heard. If the speech takes place in a noisy environment, the speaker will want to increase his or her volume. But if the environment is quiet and the speaker’s volume is too high, the audience may feel they are being yelled at.

Fluency— In presenting non-written communication, fluency is key. Fluency means the ability of the speaker to speak naturally or easily. Speakers who practice the content of their presentation, who are comfortable speaking in front of an audience, and who are familiar with the subject are more likely to deliver a speech with fluency. Speakers who are nervous or unfamiliar with the content they are delivering may pause a lot or seem to become lost in what they are saying and “lose their place,” and this affects the audience’s ability to understand and appreciate the message of the speech.

Pronunciation (unrelated to accent or dialect)— Unrelated to accent or dialect, pronunciation or articulation refers to the clear pronunciation of the word. When speakers rush or do not articulate, the words all string together and can be difficult to understand. If a speaker mumbles or his or her voice trails off, the audience can become confused and disinterested.

Nonverbal Components

Not all non-written communication is verbal. A lot of meaning can come from body language, posture, and gesturing. Students must learn how to effectively integrate non-verbal components into their communication, and this comes from watching their teachers and how they integrate these components when they speak.

Gesture— Gesturing and body language can help emphasize a speaker’s non-written communication, but too much gesturing can become distracting. It is important to strike a balance between using one’s hands or arms to make a point and engage the audience and distracting the audience with exaggerated gestures. There is research that suggests that adding gestures while you are speaking can help you remember what you are saying and speak more quickly with fewer pauses.

Eye Contact— To engage with the audience, it is important to make eye contact with the people you are speaking to. You may not catch everyone’s eye if the audience is large, but looking at people and making eye contact helps your words connect with them more effectively. It is important for the audience to feel engaged with the speaker, and if that person won’t even look directly at them, the audience will tune out the speaker and the message will be lost.

Verbal Elements

In addition to the non-verbal components, it is equally important to know how and when to integrate verbal elements into non-written forms of communication. Understanding how to control one’s voice, how to determine appropriate tone, and how to effectively use volume when speaking will help a speaker’s message be heard and understood by the audience.

Tone— In non-written communication, tone takes on a couple of different meanings. Literally, tone refers to the pitch of the voice when a person is speaking. It is the strength and quality of the sound being produced by the speaker. However, tone also describes the speaker’s attitude toward a subject or the audience and how the audience perceives and responds to the overall message being delivered. To help create the proper tone, a speaker must consider the audience and purpose of the speech and adjust word choice, pacing, etc. to match that.

Volume— The volume, as mentioned earlier, refers to the loudness of the speaker. Modulating the volume in a speech, the speaker can draw the audience in, excite them to take action, or encourage them to join the group. Effective speakers use volume to drive home their message to the audience.

Effects of Speaker Performance Stereotyping/Bias

How a speaker speaks will affect how an audience reacts and responds to the message being delivered. If the speaker has a strong accent, uses a different dialect of speech than that of the audience, or includes language or phrases with which the audience may not be familiar, there may be stereotyping or bias on the part of the audience directed toward the speaker. This could negatively impact the effectiveness of the delivery of the message. While language is a communication tool shared by people worldwide, the languages differ. Language is an ever-evolving, ever-changing beast, and to appreciate it is to accept its diversity.

Dialects— Sometimes referred to as “local language,” dialects are the particular forms and patterns of language that are particular to specific regions or social groups. For example, a Southern dialect sounds much different from a New Englander’s dialect. British English sounds different from American English, which sounds different from Australian English. Although all the same language, the dialects are very different based on the geographical location.

Dialect affects the patterns of grammar used, as well as specific vocabulary or phonology. Although most often thought of as being regional, dialects may also differ by social groups. For example, the vocabulary and structure you might use when having a discussion after class with your college professor is likely much different that the vocabulary and structure you apply when with your friends, hanging out at a party. Those different social groups apply the use of different dialects.

Idiolects— Each individual has their own unique and distinctive “voice.” A person’s way of speaking, from the vocabulary they employ to the volume they use to the gestures they include, are all part of their idiolect, or personal way of speaking. Although they may speak the same language as those around them and their dialect be the same, personal nuances create an idiolect that is uniquely a person’s own.

A speaker’s use of dialect or idiolect may lead to the audience applying a stereotype or bias to what they hear. Often, stereotypes and bias are negative, which can affect the effectiveness of the message being delivered. If the audience dismisses a speaker because they feel the speaker’s dialect or idiolect makes them sound less intelligent or less refined, they may dismiss the intended message without even listening to it. On the other hand, a dialect may have a positive effect. If a speaker has a dialect or idiolect the audience considers to be intelligent sounding or elegant or refined, they may be more likely to receive and maybe even agree with the message being delivered.

Techniques and Strategies for Engaging in Discussions

The strategies for engaging in discussions are numerous. Not everyone feels comfortable sharing their ideas with others, especially engaging in discussion, so it is critical for classroom teachers to know their students, accept their different comfort levels with regard to discussion, and provide opportunities for everyone’s voice to be heard in a meaningful way. This includes creating diverse partnerships for students, teaching listening, and helping students learn how to build on the ideas of others while expressing their own thoughts clearly. Here are some techniques for inspiring classroom discussion.

One-on-one— One-on-one discussion, as the name suggests, requires two participants. This partnership might be between the teacher and a student, or between two students. In a one-on-one discussion, two people engage in a conversation, a dialogue that takes place with both participants having a voice. This discussion strategy can help those students who are shy or uncertain of their answers have a more intimate conversation with a person as opposed to, say, speaking in front of the entire class. When students are engaged in one-on-one discussions, the teacher can monitor and evaluate the conversations by moving around the room and listening to the discussions taking place.

Group collaboration— Group collaboration for discussion involves the use of small groups to discuss a topic together. Groups may be randomly selected or intentionally created by the teacher. Groups that are heterogeneous in nature and combine a variety of student levels and abilities allow for a wide variety of experiences and opinions to be shared. Group collaboration also builds on that skill of “joining the conversation” by adding one’s own thoughts to the conversation of others. Shy or reluctant students may have a more difficult time in collaborative groups, though such groups also allow for more ideas to be heard with which a student might agree or disagree and voice his or her own opinion.

Teacher-led— Teacher-led discussions have a valuable place in the classroom, but they are not the same as lectures. When they are carefully balanced so that student learning and contributions can also take place, teacher-led discussions allow the teacher to better guide the discussion by asking specific questions that will help lead the conversation to the desired discovery of knowledge. Teacher-led discussions may also give the teacher the opportunity to call on specific students to make sure that every voice is heard.