Subtest I: Reading, Language Arts, and Literature Study Guide for the CSET Multiple Subjects Test

Language Development and Acquisition

Humans do not come ready to effectively use language to communicate. If you don’t believe that, try spending some time with a crying newborn and figuring out what he or she is upset about. People develop and acquire language over time. Language development and acquisition is a process’ and that process applies to the first language you learn and any or all subsequent languages.

First Language Development

First language development refers to the process humans go through when learning their first language. It is sometimes referred to as native language acquisition.This generally happens in early childhood, starting at birth with children listening to language around them and continuing into school-age. It starts with babbling and exploring the sounds of language and then developing understanding and mastery of the sounds by putting them together to form words, then simple sentences, then more advanced sentences. This initial process of language development happens automatically and children do not have to consciously think about learning or understanding language.

Milestones— There are several observable milestones that happen during first language acquisition. In the first year of life, babies show their language development first by crying to convey feelings like hunger or discomfort. They then progress to cooing at about 2 months to express a wider range of emotions, including satisfaction or happiness. Later’ they begin to babble and gurgle, repeating sounds they hear. This is a sign that children are beginning to recognize specific words and are trying to replicate those words.

At around 1 year of age, simple, one-word expressions through language begin. By about 18 months, children are using two- or three-word expressions that indicate more complex thoughts and may start to pose questions. When children are about two and a half, they begin using the grammatical structure of their native language, although far from perfectly. They tend to misconjugate verbs or use incorrect pronouns, but the meaning is generally conveyed clearly.

The critical period for language development seems to be birth to age 5, according to scientists and researchers.

Relevant Theories— Language development and acquisition of one’s first language comes as a natural process for most people. From birth, children are surrounded by the sound of language, and as the adults in their lives coo and talk to them, they begin to pick up language patterns. Researchers have determined that the human brain is naturally designed to learn language automatically, so babies are learning language just by being exposed to people who are speaking around them. Research also suggests that talking, reading, and singing to children aids in their language development and may help them do better in school later on.

Second and Other Language Acquisition

Language acquisition for second languages does not follow the same process as first language acquisition. This is because it often comes later in life (after the age of 5), so the natural language discovery pattern of first language acquisition is no longer in play. Second or other language acquisition is not impossible, but is more challenging and does come through a different process with a different set of milestones.

Milestones

Preproduction, also referred to as the silent stage, is the period when a new language learner is exposed to the language, but does not yet possess the skills to effectively communicate using the language. So the learner is “silent” while listening to and absorbing the language around him or her. As the learner begins to understand more about the language, he or she may begin using simple expressions but still has limited ability to understand and effectively communicate using the language.
Early production is evidenced by an understanding of approximately 1,000 words and the learner can speak in one- or two-word phrases. He or she understands the language well enough to answer “yes” or “no” to basic questions.
Speech emergence is the next stage of second language acquisition. In this stage, the learner has acquired approximately 3,000 words and may be able to form simple sentences that express basic ideas, but there may be frequent mistakes in grammar or usage. Learners in this stage can engage in basic conversation with others.
Intermediate fluency or intermediate language proficiency follows speech emergence and is the point at which learners begin to understand the language in a more academic way. At this stage, they can identify idiomatic uses of the language and there is an increased level of comprehension. They make fewer mistakes in their grammar and usage, applying a larger vocabulary able to convey deeper levels of meaning, though grammatical errors are still common.
Advanced fluency or advanced language proficiency is achieved when the learner can use and understand the language with near-native awareness, although their accent may be different than native speakers. They are fluent in understanding and being able to effectively use the language to communicate with other speakers of the language. This stage may take several years for learners to reach.

Relevant Theories

Several notable researchers and educators have studied and written about language acquisition. In preparation for the CSET®️, be sure to review the following authors’ work regarding language development and acquisition.

Dr. Stephen Krashen: You should know and understand Krashen’s five hypotheses regarding second language acquisition: The Acquisition-Learning Distinction, The Natural Order Hypothesis, The Monitor Hypothesis, The Input Hypothesis, and The Affective Filter Hypothesis.
Dr. Jim Cummins: Be able to explain Cummins’ Language Distinctions, i.e., Basic Interpersonal Communications Skills (BICS) and Cognitive Academic Language Proficiency (CALP).

First and Other Language Interaction

It can be difficult for learners to transition from \(L_1\) (first language) to \(L_2\)(second language). Because the rules and grammatical patterns and sometimes even the alphabet can change from one language to another, language learners must work to think in the language and not try to translate into the language as the words and ideas may not translate in the same way. Learners generally find it easier to adjust to and learn a new language when they interact with that language as much as possible, listening to it and speaking it conversationally as often as possible, immersing themselves in the language completely. The more a language learner can be exposed to language, in both formal and informal ways, the faster they will learn to speak and understand the language.

Exceptional Language Development

Language development is dependent, in part, on a learner’s environment. Language learners who are exposed to written and oral language often have increased vocabularies and generally show higher levels of language understanding. Those who are not exposed to written or oral language very often see delays in their language development and have much more limited vocabularies. A greater** exposure to language** earlier on, researchers have found, leads to higher levels of success in reading comprehension later on. And in any given classroom, there may be a large gap between student language abilities.

Learning disabilities and disorders can hamper a child’s ability to learn language. Auditory processing issues or a language processing disorder can affect a child’s ability to understand letter and word sounds. Dyslexia and dysgraphia can make reading and writing a challenge. Children who are struggling to effectively express themselves in language, either orally or in writing may have a learning disorder that is interfering with their natural language acquisition patterns.