Grammar and Writing Study Guide for the CLT

Grammar: Agreement

In writing, agreement refers to words and ideas working together. Agreement is important because it helps provide clarity in writing. When some words in a sentence don’t agree with other words, it can create confusion for the reader. The most common types of agreement to look for are subject-verb agreement, pronoun-antecedent agreement, agreement in verb form, and agreement in tense.

Subject-Verb Agreement

As the name suggests, subject-verb agreement requires that the subject of the sentence agree with the verb used to describe what the subject is doing. Most of the time, this means aligning the number of the subject and verb: if the subject is singular, the verb must be singular. If the subject is plural, the verb must be plural.

One wheel on the shopping cart was stuck.

Test results show that students mastered the target concept.

The use of the word or makes a singular verb necessary.

Either Eddie or Tom is going to get the promotion.

The use of the word and makes a plural verb necessary.

Sara and Selma are going swimming.

Pronoun-Antecedent Agreement

As with subjects and verbs, the pronouns and antecedents used in a sentence must also agree in number and gender (when appropriate). Since pronouns replace the antecedent in subsequent references, it must be clear who or what is being referred to by ensuring the number and gender align.

The woman dropped her car keys and they fell through the grate.

Students attending the field trip need to bring their own lunch and spending money.

Anyone who finishes their exam early may quietly leave.

Every household and business in the region must do its part to conserve water.

The use of every or each deems this a singular subject, so it needs a singular pronoun.

Agreement in Verb Form

When there are multiple subjects in a sentence, it can become confusing about what verb form to use. To enhance clarity, consider who is doing what. Singular subjects should have singular verbs; plural subjects should have plural verbs.

The bird is sitting on the telephone wire.

Several birds are happily chirping in the trees.

Either Mike’s mom or my dad has our permission slips.

Again, the use of or necessitates a singular verb.

Agreement in Tense

Sentences must also have agreement in tense. Switching tenses can be confusing to readers, so you need to keep the same tense throughout a clause.

When she speaks, people listen.

(present tense)

Since the university limited its acceptance numbers, it needed to increase tuition.

(past tense)

While a sentence can include different tenses, it must be clear what is happening when.

Mara wants to show her family her wedding photos that arrived last week.

Seth is disappointed in his grade because he studied hard for the test.

Writing

Writing questions on the CLT deal with larger composition issues, such as those to improve rhetorical effect. You may be asked about word choice, improving the flow, improving coherence and logic, or adding and subtracting sentences for maximum effect.

Word Choice

The word choice, or diction, used in a piece of writing is important. Writers intentionally select words that will help deliver their intended message to the audience. Using vague, non-specific words will result in a vague, potentially unclear message. When selecting diction, there are several considerations writers should make as they choose vivid words intended to convey specific meanings.

Denotation

The denotation of a word is what it literally means. It’s the explanation you would find if you were to look it up in a dictionary. Knowing what words mean helps writers avoid using the wrong word in their writing. It can be easy to misuse words, especially those with similar spellings or sounds. Carefully proofreading and looking for misused words that have a different meaning than the intended word will help clarify writing. But there are many words in the English language that have the same or similar meanings. In this case, consider the connotation of each.

Connotation

A word’s connotation refers to the emotional connection a word has. The connotation of a word may be positive, negative, or neutral, but there is an implication or suggestion of meaning beyond the word’s literal denotation. Consider the word work. There are multiple synonyms for work and their connotations vary widely. Here are some examples:

Dan worked hard on his project.

The workers labored in the fields under the hot sun.

The factory workers toiled away during 12-hour shifts.

Carrie strived for a promotion.

Precision

Words have power, and selecting the right word for the right purpose and audience is part of what separates good writing from great writing. Considering the denotation and connotation of a word, effective writers choose words that convey a clear message to the audience. Vague, general terms do not help the reader create a mental picture or really understand a particular subject. Instead, specific, precise words that have the exact denotation and appropriate connotation for the task are selected.

Appropriateness

When selecting their diction, writers consider their purpose and audience. Selecting appropriate words that help to set a particular tone and convey a specific message to an intended audience results in effective writing. Consider the formality of the text, who is likely going to read it, and the message it is intended to convey to select the most appropriate words for the task.

Effectiveness

Again, specific, intentional word choice will yield the most effective results. Writers write to communicate a particular message to the audience and this is done most successfully when effective words are selected. This also means getting rid of unnecessary or extra words in a text—if it doesn’t serve a specific purpose, it probably doesn’t need to be included.

Variation

Just like having a variety in sentence structure helps make a piece of writing more interesting, variation in word choice also helps get and keep readers engaged with a text. Using the same word or phrase over and over again can make a text seem repetitive and boring. This is where consideration of denotation and connotation is important: what other words with the same or similar meaning and impact could be used to replace some of those overused choices?

Flow

The flow of a piece of writing relates to how smoothly and easily it can be read by the audience. Clearly structured and well-organized texts have an easy flow that readers can enjoy without having to work excessively hard to understand or follow. If a text doesn’t have good flow, readers are likely to give up and stop reading. Logical structure and effective transitions help move a reader successfully through a text.

Sentence

The flow of a text starts at the sentence level. Sentences should be structured in such a way that they make sense and are easy to read and understand. This means checking to make sure that sentences are constructed and punctuated correctly and that clear, appropriate word choice has been made. Making sure there are no run-on or fragment sentences or misused words will help the writing flow more smoothly.

Paragraph

In addition to the flow of each sentence, the paragraphs themselves should flow smoothly. This includes the flow within the paragraph, from one sentence to the next, and from one paragraph to the next. To improve the flow of a text, remember to vary sentence structure in a logical way, avoid choppy or unnecessarily wordy sentences, and use appropriate transition words both within sentences and to help the reader move from one idea in a paragraph to the next or from one complete paragraph to the next.

Be sure that examples include explanations of what they are examples of and why they are included within the text. Often, writers may include a quotation or an example and move on; without providing the reader context of how the quote or example is situated in the big picture, it may not make much sense. Check each paragraph to make sure there is a topic sentence, adequate explanation, and a clear transition to the next idea.

Passage

The overall structure and organization of a text affect its flow. Logical organization and presenting ideas or concepts in a rational way will help the reader make meaning of the text. If ideas are just included in a haphazard way, the reader may have difficulty understanding and following the ideas presented.

Starting with an introduction, then move into the main ideas of the text, and then provide a conclusion to review the key points that were presented. All of these elements give a logical structure to a piece of writing. While a writer may structure a text differently to meet their intended purpose and audience, generally speaking, a text with good flow has a clear sense of beginning, middle, and end.

Organization of Paragraphs

The organization and order of paragraphs contribute to the overall flow of a text. Beginning with an introduction to the main idea, then logically ordered body paragraphs to develop the main idea, and then a conclusion to wrap things up is the general structure of most texts. Again, the writer determines their purpose and audience in planning how to present information in their text and in what order it would make the most sense. Information might be presented in chronological order, as a cause and effect, or present a problem and then offer potential solutions. There are many ways to structure a text, so considering the audience and purpose will determine the best way to organize the paragraphs.

Transition Between Paragraphs

Effective transitions move the reader from one idea to the next and from one paragraph to the next. Many types of transitions can be used, so select ones that really help meet your purpose. Here are some examples:

• to provide additional information: and, in addition, moreover

• to draw a conclusion: therefore, finally, in summary

• to show cause and effect: because, since, as a result

• to provide an example: for example, for instance, in other words

• to give a comparison: for this reason, clearly, undoubtedly

These transitional “signposts” help guide a reader through a text and show how different ideas relate to one another within the passage.

Coherence and Logic

Effective writing flows because there is a sense of coherence and logic throughout a text. Coherence refers to the way all parts of a sentence, paragraph, or passage link together. The ideas are logically arranged and clearly connected to one another. Similar to cohesion is unity, which means that all parts of a paragraph “go together” and relate to the main idea or central focus of the text. It’s all focused on and working to achieve the same goal: to support the main idea.

Logic in a text means that ideas and examples are presented in a rational, thoughtful, organized way that makes sense to the reader. Effective transitions move readers from one idea to the next, examples relate to the main idea and are thoroughly explained, and precise diction is used.

Evidence

To help convince their audience, writers often use evidence or information to support their claims. To be effective, this evidence must relate in some understandable way to the point being made. Evidence is often presented in the form of facts, statistics, data, research, or firsthand experiences. Evidence helps provide a sense of logic by providing specific examples to support a claim. This is why a writer’s choice of evidence is important—if they select faulty, irrational, or suspicious evidence to support their claim, the reader may question the overall validity of the entire text.

Connections

To create a sense of coherence in a text, writers must provide the audience with clear connections. In addition to providing evidence, writers must explain how that evidence supports their claim. To help the reader make connections with the text, writers might present information in several different ways (without sounding repetitive, of course). They build on their prior statements, make connections with effective transitions, and provide adequate commentary to help the reader understand the overall message and “get” what they should “get” out of the text.

Content Addition and Removal

Writing is a process that is never really “done.” There is always something that could be changed, added, or taken out to improve the overall text. In the revising and editing stages of the writing process, writers are looking for ways to improve their text. This might mean adding content to provide more examples, increasing clarity, or removing content to improve the flow and avoid repetition. Looking at the “big picture,” does the text include enough context for the reader to understand the intended message? If not, what needs to be added? Are there places where the writing seems to wander off-topic? If so, what needs to be removed or rewritten to increase the focus of the text?

Adding a Sentence

There are two important decisions to make when considering adding a sentence (or more) to a text: why add it, and where to put it? In the first decision, writers must consider what value the addition will have to the overall text. Will it clarify an idea already presented? Will it provide a specific example? Will it aid in transitioning the reader from one idea to another? Will it fill in a gap that currently exists in the text?

Once you determine the reason for adding to a text, then it’s easier to determine where it should go. Depending on why a sentence is being added, it should be placed where the gap exists (near an idea already presented, at the beginning or end of a paragraph, etc.).

Removing a Sentence

Like adding a sentence, removing a sentence should also be done only after careful consideration. If a sentence doesn’t fit within the context of the paragraph, if it repeats information already provided, if it is off-topic—these are all good reasons to remove it. Getting rid of unnecessary content—whether that’s words, complete sentences, or entire paragraphs—will help streamline the writing and help the overall flow of the text.